Proof of the pudding

The Proof of the Pudding SAILS inquiry and assessment unit outlines an inquiry activity in which the students (plan to) prepare a "good" pudding. This can focus on biological aspects – nutrition, energy content of foods, quality of nutrients, healthy lifestyles – and chemical concepts – groups of organic compounds, colloid systems, and sol gels. The close connection with everyday life and learning based on hands-on activities raise the students' interest. The three activities first introduce the topic, develop into planning and implementing an investigation and end with reflection on new knowledge. These activities can be implemented in two lessons (~90 minutes), but preparation of the pudding takes more time and may be assigned as homework.

Through this activity, students develop their inquiry skills in planning investigations by distinguishing alternatives and constructing models, as well as skills in developing hypotheses, forming coherent arguments – setting variables, handling quantities, making comparisons, making judgements and decisions, analysing and critiquing experiments – and working collaboratively. The assessment opportunities described include student observation, group discussion or presentation and evaluation of student artefacts.

The unit was trialled by teachers in Ireland, Slovakia, Greece and Hungary, with students aged 14-18 years, in five classes in total. The teaching approach in the case studies was generally that of guided inquiry (open inquiry for one Hungarian class). The assessment of planning investigations was carried out in all case studies. In Ireland, Slovakia and Greece, the assessment of forming coherent arguments and working collaboratively is also described.

Unit booklet

Key content / concepts

Groups of nutrients
Colloidal systems
Health nutrition
Attitudes towards healthy nutrition and lifestyle

Level

Lower
Upper

Inquiry skills and competencies assessed

Planning investigations
Developing hypotheses
Forming coherent arguments
Working collaboratively
Scientific reasoning
Scientific literacy

Assessment methods

Classroom dialogue
Teacher observation
Peer-assessment
Self-assessment
Worksheets
Student devised materials
Presentations
Other assessment items

The Proof of the Pudding SAILS unit was developed as part of the PRIMAS project, http://www.primas-project.eu, within the Seventh Framework Program of the European Union, and adapted for use in the SAILS project. In this unit, students are tasked with the preparation of a “good” pudding. The unit comprises three activities; in the first activity the theoretical concepts underlying the activity are introduced, in the second activity students plan an experiment to test their hypotheses of what makes a good pudding and, finally, the students reflect on what has been learned through the activities.

The depth of prior knowledge for implementing the unit depends on the focus of development. For lower second level, the goal for development can be developing research skills. For upper second level students, an inquiry into the colloid state and systems based on knowledge in the field of chemistry and physics, or having a look into nutrients and the healthy diet is appropriate. It is not a problem if the group does not have prior knowledge of the topic, as seeking information can be a part of the task. However, in all cases, it is important that the students are able to anchor and link the newly acquired information to their existing knowledge and increase their understanding.

When dealing with the unit activities, it is important that the assessment is in line with the objectives of the topic and with the curriculum. It is also important that students know before they commence their work how to report their results and how they will be judged. The draft unit proposed that planning investigations was a key inquiry skill for development during implementation, but opportunities for assessment of other skills and competencies have been identified for each of the unit activities. The students can be assessed, either as groups or as individuals, through the use of discussion and provision of oral formative feedback during the lesson. Assessment can consider student’s concept knowledge, inquiry skills and scientific literacy. In addition, self- and peer-assessment may be carried out. For each of the activities, some suggested skills for assessment and criteria for success are outlined.

The suggested two lesson periods allocated to cover the unit (approximately 90 minutes) are not sufficient to exploit all the possibilities inherent in the task. Students can manage to finish the preparation of the designed end product with sufficient support, but designing them along multiple design aspects and critical analysis of each other’s end products requires more time. Thus, it is suggested that one more period be attached to the unit where possible. This time could be allocated to more detailed analysis (e.g. energy content, composition of nutrients) or a more thorough development of research skills, as well as observation, support and assessment.

Below you can find the full inquiry and assessment unit for download, as well as an archive with classroom materials, including student worksheets and assessment tools for teachers to be used during the activities if available.

Unit booklet

Activity A: Preparation of inquiry

Concept focus	Introduction of background theory Features of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and minerals Nutrition
Inquiry skills focus	Developing hypotheses Forming coherent arguments Working collaboratively
Scientific reasoning	Identifying problems Making reasoned decisions
Scientific literacy	Explaining scientific concepts
Assessment methods	Classroom dialogue

This activity introduces the concept of the inquiry – preparation of a good pudding – and allows the students to review their prior knowledge and consider the problem for investigation. This warm-up activity raises students’ interest and enthusiasm about the task, while also providing a theoretical introduction. This ensures that the students can identify appropriate content knowledge and enables the teacher to introduce complementary conceptual knowledge connected to the task, which is necessary to solve the problem.

Activity B: Planning investigations & carrying out the inquiry

Concept focus	Model system for the jelly state Planning preparation of a “good” pudding
Inquiry skills focus	Planning investigations Developing hypotheses Forming coherent arguments Working collaboratively
Scientific reasoning	Making reasoned decisions
Scientific literacy	Explain colloid state and sol/gel transformation
Assessment methods	Classroom dialogue Worksheets Student devised materials

Students plan their investigations, considering both the model system and ingredients for a real pudding. In developing the model system, the students make judgements and decisions based on reasoning. They work towards developing a hypothesis and plan their investigation of the model system. The preparation of the pudding task encourages analytical thinking, ranking on the basis of quality aspects, looking for connections, distinguishing alternatives and use of systematic thinking.

Activity C: Evaluation and feedback

Concept focus	Reflection on acquired knowledge
Inquiry skills focus	Forming coherent arguments
Scientific reasoning	Drawing conclusions
Scientific literacy	Presenting scientific data
Assessment methods	Classroom dialogue Worksheets Student devised materials

In the final part of the unit, each student reflects on what they have learned in carrying out the activity. This is an opportunity to form conclusions, present their final product and argue its merits, thus consolidating their content knowledge. They should exhibit critical thinking, coherent argumentation and reflective thinking.

The Proof of the Pudding SAILS inquiry and assessment unit was trialled in four countries, producing four case studies of its implementation – CS1 Ireland, CS2 Slovakia, CS3 Greece, CS4 Hungary. All the case studies were implemented by teachers who had some experience of teaching through inquiry, but the students involved had generally not been taught through inquiry, except for CS3 Greece.

The ages of the students involved in the case studies were 15-16 years old for CS1 Ireland, CS2 Slovakia and CS3 Greece, while in CS4 Hungary the unit was trialled with two classes – one science class of 14-15 year olds and one biology class of 17-18 year olds. In all case studies the students were of mixed ability; CS1 Ireland was the only case study with a single-sex class (all female).

The case studies focus on developing students' skills in planning investigations, forming coherent arguments and working collaboratively. Scientific reasoning capabilities and scientific literacy were also assessed, in particular evaluating skill in forming arguments and transferring knowledge from the model to the real system. A wealth of assessment methods are detailed, in particular classroom dialogue, evaluation of student devised materials – the pudding – and peer- or self-assessment.

The case studies show that, taking the main problem raised by the unit and the teaching recommendations into consideration, the range of applications can be expanded, which is partly due to the multidisciplinary nature of the content. This way, emphasis can be put on either the chemistry or biology parts. The main focus was on biological aspects in CS3 Greece and chemical aspects in CS4 Hungary. The analysis of the problem can be separated into construction of a model and the actual adaptation of the model. Dealing with the first part of the problem develops theoretical and proportional thinking mostly, whereas the second part helps in practical adaptation and encourages combinative and critical thinking. The latter can be used more effectively with groups of students at a higher age. Each case study places a strong emphasis on eliciting students’ preliminary knowledge and focuses them on the task, strengthening their motivation as well as their independent research skills in the process. Each trial was based on group work (or pair work in case of CS2 Slovakia), but these were complemented with homework assignments (CS1 Ireland) and individual research opportunities as well.

No assessment tools were provided in the draft unit, and each of the case studies developed their own strategies for evaluation of inquiry skills. In both CS1 Ireland and CS3 Greece, teachers used rubrics to assess all of the inquiry skills and scientific reasoning and literacy. CS2 Slovakia and CS4 Hungary focused on specific inquiry skills and primarily utilised formative assessment through oral feedback during the lesson. Most case studies included some aspect of peer- or self-assessment, allowing students to engage in and understand the evaluation process.

Below you can find the full inquiry and assessment unit for download (excluding the case studies), as well as an archive containing all the case studies.

Unit booklet Case studies

CS1 Ireland

Concept focus	Development of inquiry skills States of matter – gelatine structure
Activities implemented	Preparation of inquiry Planning investigations & carrying out the inquiry Evaluation and feedback
Inquiry skills assessed	Planning investigations Forming coherent arguments Working collaboratively
Scientific reasoning	Proportional reasoning
Assessment methods	Classroom dialogue Teacher observation Self-assessment
Level	Upper
Age	15-16
Prior experience with inquiry	Some experience

The core skills assessed in this implementation were planning investigations, working collaboratively, scientific reasoning (critiquing experimental design) and forming coherent arguments. The skills were assessed through teacher observation, classroom dialogue and by reviewing written artefacts. The teacher used a combination of formative and summative assessment, in which each student’s performance was measured against pre-developed criteria. The teacher provided a student rubric, to serve as a brief instructional guide and to motivate the students.

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CS2 Slovakia

Concept focus	Transformation of sol-gel Nutritional balance of proposed recipe
Activities implemented	Preparation of inquiry Planning investigations & carrying out the inquiry Evaluation and feedback
Inquiry skills assessed	Planning investigations Forming coherent arguments Working collaboratively
Scientific reasoning	Argumentation
Assessment methods	Classroom dialogue Teacher observation Student devised materials Other assessment items
Level	Upper
Age	15-16
Prior experience with inquiry	No experience

This case study details an interdisciplinary implementation, in which teachers from both chemistry and biology asked students to investigate the sol-gel transition in a pudding, as well as its nutritional value. The skills identified for assessment were planning investigations, working collaboratively and forming coherent arguments. Assessment was based on teacher observation and classroom dialogue, during which students explained how they optimised their puddings in terms of thickener/fluid ratio and nutritional composition.

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CS3 Greece

Concept focus	Nutritional balance of proposed recipe
Activities implemented	Preparation of inquiry Planning investigations & carrying out the inquiry Evaluation and feedback
Inquiry skills assessed	Planning investigations Developing hypotheses Forming coherent arguments Working collaboratively
Scientific reasoning	Observing Making comparisons
Scientific literacy	Understanding concepts under investigation
Assessment methods	Classroom dialogue Teacher observation Peer-assessment Self-assessment Worksheets Student devised materials
Level	Lower
Age	14-15
Prior experience with inquiry	Some experience

Through guided inquiry implementation, students developed “healthy” pudding recipes, which they then prepared at home. The students used online resources to aid in identifying the nutritional value of their ingredients. All inquiry skills and competencies identified in the SAILS project were assessed, which was achieved through teacher observation, classroom dialogue, peer- and self-assessment, as well as evaluation of worksheets and puddings.

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CS4 Hungary

Concept focus	Construction of a model system
Activities implemented	Preparation of inquiry Planning investigations & carrying out the inquiry Evaluation and feedback
Inquiry skills assessed	Planning investigations Forming coherent arguments
Scientific reasoning	Drawing conclusions Identification of variables Transfer of knowledge from model to real system
Assessment methods	Classroom dialogue Teacher observation Peer-assessment Worksheets Student devised materials Presentations
Level	Lower Upper
Age	15-18
Prior experience with inquiry	Some experience

This case study describes implementation with two classes – one lower and one upper second level. The key skill identified for assessment was planning investigations, as well as scientific reasoning, which was evidenced by ability to identify variables, draw conclusions and transfer knowledge from the model system to the real pudding. The teacher provided formative oral feedback throughout the lessons, as well as evaluation of written artefacts using a rubric and a student questionnaire.

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Proof of the pudding

Optimising the perfect pudding – an investigation good enough to eat!